Abstract

            There is a problem in Western Philosophy-the problem of dual existence of soul and matter which has not been solved yet. A Muslim man-Mohammad Iqbal from India went to Cambridge and endeavored to solve the problem proposing “Ego” as Ultimate principle.  Before him, a French Scholar Henry Bergson had made similar attempt to solve the dualist problem proposing “Vital Force or Elan Vital” as fundamental principle. The objective of both was to emphasize the importance of human than God and to provide the insight of Free Will in order to revive the human emancipation, that is why their contemporary time was in the influence of Romanticism.

Iqbal was from religious tradition of Muslimism and Sufi Mysticism and he was trained under the British Idealist McTaggart. His Predecessor Bergson was from scientific tradition and he was trained by the Darwin’s Theory of Evolution influencing from Herbert Spencer too.

Main aim of this project is to connect the spiritual insight of Iqbal with the scientific insight of Bergson bearing in mind how Iqbal was influenced from Bersonian view and how both of them used Intuition as source of Knowledge to reveal their analogous kind of Metaphysical doctrine.

Key Words: Intuition,Elan Vital, life impetus, instinct, ego, creative evolution, Time, Free will, desire, fatalism, finalism

Chapter I: Introduction

Brief Introduction to Iqbal

Iqbal resurrects Man from the Lilliputian assumption of Islamic Religion.  Such an attempt made him the reconstructor of Religious thought in Islam.  He bridges up the big metaphysical gulf between God and Man.  Unlike Nietzsche, he revives the man’s position keeping God alive.  According to him, Man (self), who comprehends both passional vitality and its spiritual proclivity, is the complete individual.  His postulation of Man as the creative truth (Anal Haq) raises individual’s position from dead capitulator to the representative being of God on Earth.

Iqbal’s project of reconstructing Islamic thought captures the area of Epistemology and Metaphysics that is why he was precisely a Philosopher than Theologian.  As he carried out his study in Philosophy under McTaggart in Cambridge, he was much more influenced by his contemporary western philosophical tradition.  He takes the main metaphysical concepts from Quran and epistemic concepts from Sufi mysticism, and then interprets in a new way capturing critically the ideas of Nietzsche, McTaggart, Bergson, and Whitehead.  Apart from this, The Realistic Idealism[1] growing in contemporary India had a great influence upon his writing.  It is prima facie that the firm faith in Quran is the heart of his philosophy which breathes in western environment, contemplates mystically as Sufi and clothes in Indian fashion, all these sorts lead to establish his original philosophy providing more spiritual capacity and role to Individual human than in traditional Islam. Among these macro aspects of his reconstructing project, here, I am intended to connect his thought with the influencing French philosopher Henri Bergson in both Epistemological and Metaphysical aspects.

Brief Introduction to Bergson

In Western Philosophy, 20^th century begins with Anti-intellectualists’ responses to Hegel’s Intellectualism. F.H Bradley endeavors to explain Absolute Idealism in empirical manner that is called Neo-Hegelianism.  Pragmatist philosophers attack on Hegel’s Intellectualism arguing that intellect grows to fulfill the biological necessities.  They argue that Absolute is intrinsically dynamic and changeable rather than rationally certitude.  French Philosopher Henry Bergson enhances this Anti-intellectualist idea in a very new way, which enables him to solve the most debated Mind-Body problem of Western philosophy[2].  He was deeply influenced from Romanticism, Pragmatism, and Existentialism of his time, which were the Anti-Intellectualist traditions.  Taking fundamental idea from Darwinism, he proposes the Ultimate Reality of Biological nature and further he criticizes the Herbert Spencer’s Mechanistic explanation[3].  Bergson is a distinct philosopher in Western Philosophy who explains universe on the basis of creative evolution of Elan Vital. He focuses on the life-world and his philosophy is applicable equally in life philosophy, traditional rational philosophy and evolutionary biology as well as Quantum Physics. In addition, His project was to overcome the Agnostic challenge of Kant too.  Kant’s Problem arises due to the duality of Rational and Empirical, both of which belongs to the capacity of Mind.  Bergson bridges the Mind-Body gap and explains ultimate reality in terms of vital force.  He claims that Mind-Body is the evolution of vital force, which in Human Beings, appears with distinct kind of Intuitive power.

Analogy of objectives

Although there are huge similarities between Iqbal and Bergson, there is a quite difference in objectives too.Iqbal’s project is to reconstruct the religious thought in Islam which he satisfies by raising individual man’s position to Perfect Man whereas Bergson’s project is to philosophizing the scientific biological ideas which he satisfies by developing the theory of creative evolution.  But there is not only this difference. Iqbal bridges up the metaphysical gap between God and Man too, similarly Bergson bridges up the Mind-Body gap. Iqbal summes up the God and Man as ego principle whereas Bergson connects Mind-Body through Elan Vital. Both, the Ego and Elan Vital, has the complete Free Will, both are intuitively apprehensible and have the infinite creativity.

Analogy of Approach

As I mentioned above, although there is a difference between Berson’s and Iqbal’s philosophy regarding the objectives, we can get great similarity of bridging metaphysical gap.  Similarly while comparing their approach, we may find out dissimilarities in some extent and similarities in some extent.  Dissimilarity is that Bergson’s approach is scientific while Iqbal’s approach is Religious.  Bergson intends to reveal the metaphysical wonder of life-world while Iqbal intends to realize and to make contact with ideal of life-world. Iqbal emphasizes on spirituality while Bergson emphasizes on process of Reality. Whatever their approach is, intention of selecting such approach is to revive the immaterialist and anti-intellectualist, simple intuitive perspectives about the life-world.

Chapter II: Epistemic Ground

Epistemic Intuition: Iqbal

For Iqbal, the spirit of Philosophy is one of free inquiry[4] which suspects all authority. Pure reason or a rational way is incapable of accomplishing the final goal of such inquiry. Free inquiry is alike the bird’s trackless way. In some extent, a religious faith shows the hidden object of inquiry that’s why faith has something like cognitive content[5]. Ultimate reality (Allah) is the cognitive content of such faith. Hence, Iqbal’s epistemic aim is to accomplish the cognitive content of faith. The general truth which faith embodies must not remain unsettled as in so called Rationalism and Empiricism.  Although Iqbal does not deny the Empirical and Rational way of Knowing, that he does not say these ways yield false knowledge, he claims that both lack the direct apprehension of content of faith or Ultimate Reality[6]. Hume has already shown that the end of Empiricism is Skepticism and in Kantian Transcendental Idealism, both of them combine together to form an Agnosticism. For Kant, perceptual constituents must fulfill certain rational (formal) conditions in order to constitute knowledge but Noumenon or the ideas of things-in-itself cannot be demonstrated by Reason formally when we experience it. Kantian conclusion is that the subject matter of Metaphysics falls outside the boundaries of experience and cannot be systematized by space-time and therefore Metaphysics is impossible.  According to Kant, Religious faith also constitutes such Noumenal Ideas as mystical experience and hence Religion is equally impossible. But according to Iqbal, it is possible to attain knowledge of Ultimate Reality and therefore both Metaphysics and religion are possible[7]. He says that Quran has spoken about such a process. He gathers Quranic notions and elucidates in a simplest manner.  For him, knowing Ultimate Reality is very simple as knowing as the existence of himself.  Iqbal accuses of Kant that “Kant’s verdict can be accepted only if we establish an idea  that all experience other than the ordinary level of experience is impossible.”[8] In simpler way, Kant’s such declaration makes all empirical knowledge false because things-in-itself are knowable directly and more precisely through experience by a very simpler manner. Moreover, Metaphysical and Religious ideas are easily knowable than Kantian Phenomenon.  So, According to Iqbal, denying the simple empirical knowledge (Noumenon) makes fallacious to the general empirical knowledge (phenomenon) or Kant is walking on opposite path which makes simpler unknowable and general knowable.

Iqbal unhesitatingly asserts that Reality in itself is knowable by experience in a very simpler manner that is called Intuition.  Intuition is the task of heart (feeling) rather than Mind (Rational). “The ‘heart’ is a kind of inner intuition or insight which, in the beautiful words of Rumi, feeds on the rays of the sun and brings us into contact with aspects of Reality other than those open to Sense perception.”[9]

Intuition is empathetic or makes relation with Reality per se. It is the direct awareness of Reality, which comes to us immediately.

Iqbal’s view on intuition is more or less influenced by Sufi Mysticism. In his time, not only Muslimism, but also Sufi Mysticism was growing up in Indian poetry and Aesthetics, which were greatly influenced by Upanishadic and Vedantic tradition[10] . So, Iqbal’s view on intuition has become the combo of Sufism, Hinduism and Muslimism.

Epistemic Intuition: Bergson

Alike Iqbal, Bergson has developed the Intuitive Epistemology as an attempt to overcome Kantian agnosticism.[11] He gives higher value to the intuition than sense perception and reason. Showing the inadequacy of empirical and intellectual knowledge, Bergson claims that intuition is obligatory for the knowing of Reality.  Intellect captures only the external aspect whereas intuition enters into the inner aspect of Reality[12].  For Bergson, Intuition is the advance rationality.  Moreover, Intuition is Instinct plus consciousness.  Instinct is the property of elan vital.  Original instinct of elan vital is unconscious whereas advancement of elan vital as Human Being bears the consciousness and hence human being contains the intuitive capacity.  Distinguishing with Rationality, he defines Intuition that, “It follows from this that an absolute could only be given in an intuition whilst everything else falls within the province of analysis. By intuition is meant the kind of intellectual sympathy by which one places oneself within an object in order to coincide with what is unique in it and consequently inexpressible.[13] For him all philosophical categories are knowable by Intuition, further he says, “There is one reality, at least, which we all seize from within, by intuition and not by simple analysis.”[14]

Comparative Intuition: Iqbal and Bergson

Bergson overcomes the Kantian Metaphysical Agnosticism.  Likewise, Iqbal overcomes the Kantian Religious Agnosticism.  For Iqbal and Bergson, Reality in itself is apprehensible in a very simple manner. Bergson and Iqbal both accept experience, intellect and intuition as source of knowledge starting their philosophy explaining from experience and giving more priority to intuition. Both of them criticized the doctrines which claim either intellect or experience as adequate source of knowledge. Moreover, as I mentioned earlier, Bergson can be categorized as the anti-intellectualist. According to them, only intuition is able to grasp the inner aspect of Reality whereas intellect grasps outer aspect symbolically.   

Iqbal defines knowledge as “sense perception elaborated by understanding”[15].  Similarly, in his book creation and evolution, Bergson affirms himself as empiricist.  He makes resolution of building up his Philosophy based on ‘Experience’[16].  However, here, one things must be kept in mind is that ‘Experience’ for Bergson and Iqbal is not as explained by so called British Empiricist. Both of them claim that the ‘experience’ explained by British Empiricist is mere subjective state into which the individual retires.  Bergson distinguishes three level of experience: 1) Sense Experience, 2) Mental Experience, and 3) Inner Experience.  First two lead the knowledge and information of external world as well as our private feelings.  The third is the exactly intuitive experience which yields knowledge of Ultimate Reality.[17] Similarly, Iqbal differentiates mere subjective experience with inner experience. For him, Inner experience is the experience of heart, which realizes ultimate truth; nevertheless, Iqbal does not split the Subjective experience as in Bergson’s manner.  Iqbal’s subjective experience include both Mental and sensual experience.    

Because of influence from Sufism, Iqbal’s notion of Intuition seems to be Mystic experience whereas Bergson’s Intuition seems to be advancement of intellect rather than attainment and realization of higher mystical experience.  

Metaphysical Comparison

Metaphysics: Iqbal

Iqbal’s Metaphysics based on Intuitive epistemology is an endeavor of providing centrality to the man in Islamic Religious thought.  His metaphysical aim is to make room for perfect man which seems to be an influence from Nietzsche’s Superman in some extent but the Iqbal’s Perfect Man is not similar to Nietzsche’s Superman.[18] His metaphysics is an elaboration and explanation of monistic principle which defines self, World and God as an Ego. Iqbal rejects the mechanistic view of Universe and delineates the intuitive teleological view.

Ego

In his lecture “Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”, Iqbal says, “The ego reveals itself as a unity of what we call mental states. Mental states do not exist in mutual isolation. They mean and involve one another. They exist as phases of a complex whole, called mind. The organic unity, however, of these interrelated states or, let us say, events is a special kind of unity. It fundamentally differs from the unity of a material thing; for the parts of a material thing can exist in mutual isolation. Mental unity is absolutely unique.”[19] Individual Ego is definable as self, World is definable as totality of Egos and God is definable as supreme Ego. Every individual ego is representation of Divine God. Ego is eternal, not created. It is Divine direction towards creation of new things.[20]

 Ego comprehends both the passional vitality and spiritual propensity. For individual self, Ego is essentially private and unique[21]. Soul and Body are system of act. Bodily act is mechanical while soul’s act is free. Body is accumulated action or habit of soul, they are undetachable[22]. In this way, Iqbal bridge up the Mind-Body gap by single Ego principle.

Creativity

Iqbal mentions the view of devotional Sufism, especially a famous expression of Hallai- ‘Anal Haq’ which means ‘I am the Creative Truth’. Moreover, quoting a relevant verse from the Quran and expressing the significance of the word Khalq which means creation, he asserts that the Ego is creative in nature[23].

Time

Regarding the Space-Time relation, Iqbal denies the Newtonian objective conception of Space-Time. For him, Time is Relative with space[24] , But he didn’t has paid more attention to space-time relation. What he explains is about how we apprehend time in Intuitive level.

Iqbal’s notion of Time develops criticizing the Serial Time, McTsaggart’s Unreality of Time and Nietzsche’s Cyclical Time. Serial Time is the view regarding Time as absolute apart Space which measures Time as succession. Acceptance of relativity of Time and viewing ego’s activity as free act without mechanical determinism is sufficient to reject the notion of Serial Time. According to him, Serial Time is applicable only to the material motion, not to the ego activity. McTaggart rejects the reality of time. As a Idealist, he says Time is just illusive appearance. Iqbal says McTaggart’s such notion is due to the belief on Serial Time[25]. McTaggart’s viewed the Time as material movement only and he could not find the movement of subtle activity of Ideal. Nietzsche claimed Time as Periodical measurement. According to Nietzsche, eternal ideal which is immortal follows cyclical existence that is like evolution and involution process. This shows the repetition of periods. But for Iqbal, since Ego is the representation of God, it is immortal but not periodically repetitive. [26]

Iqbal believed that “a keen sense of the reality of time and the concept of life as a continuous movement in time is typical of Islam.”[27] He attaches pivotal importance to time in his own philosophy. According to him, the measurement of ego’s act of creation cannot be measured as by mathematical time. Since the ego is intuitively knowable and in intuitive level, we cannot grasp the known things as succession with certainty, he explains ‘Time’ as Duration. Moreover he says, “The duration of the physical event is stretched out in space as a present fact; the ego’s duration is concentrated within it and linked with its present and future in a unique manner.”[28]

Free Will

The debate between predestination and free will has been an ancient debate within in Islam. Iqbal comes down strongly in favor of free will. Iqbal has established that the Ego shares in divine practice of free will. The ego, therefore, is not space-bound.[29] Ego is not created rather it is directed towards creation of things. Iqbal used the word AMR means direction which is essential nature of ego. Iqbal uses another word Khalq (for created things) which means creation. He does not use the word Khalqfor Ego because ego is not created things rather it is creative.[30] Ego is eternal and essential free to act. Life exists for ego-activity, which man is free to engage in. Since ego self’s act is free, Man is responsible to his every right and wrong action. Free will is a unique quality of the ego, which no other creation has. Every ego has the characteristics of God (supreme ego) and God is free, then his manifestation cannot be freedom less. Iqbal writes, “The ego shares in the life and freedom of the Ultimate Ego who, by permitting the emergence of a finite ego, capable of private initiative, has limited this freedom of His own free will.”[31] Prayer in Islam is the ego’s escape from mechanism to freedom. Iqbal provides free will to man in a way of directing towards attainment of perfect manhood.

Metaphysics: Bergson

Bergson’s Metaphysics deeply rooted in his intuitive Epistemology is an attempt of explaining universe organically. Criticizing the rationalist view, he argues “Metaphysics, then, is the science which claims to dispense with symbols”[32]. His main contribution in Metaphysics can be viewed as the bridging Mind-Body gap. Bergson’s Lebensphilosophie can be seen as a response to the mechanistic philosophies of his time.  [33] For Bergson, Reality in itself is completely free.

Elan Vital: (Life impetus or life force)

The concept of Elan Vital first appeared in his book ‘Creative Evolution’. He defined elan vital as the vital force which has the creativity of evolution. It is the Bergson’s invention of ultimate stuff. He is the first who conceived living force as ultimate being.  Such vital force progresses in organic (biological) manner rather than mechanistic manner.[34] He also protects the life impetus from so called determined teleology. Life force pervades in all matter and mind. Bergson does not believe in the duality of Matter and Mind. A Pure thinking consciousness belongs to the Ultimate Stuff (Elan Vital). Moreover he conceives Matter as the movement inverse that of life. Bergson’s this endeavor of explaining the world process establishing life force as ultimate lead him to establish base for the libenswelt philosophy in Continental Europe. 

The life force or Elan vital is intuitively graspable. He says,”We may sympathize intellectually with nothing else, but we certainly sympathize with our own selves.”[35] Elan vital contains the instinct or an impulse which leads to its biological creativity. The vital force acts freely. In his writing, ‘Time and Free will”, Bergson appreciates the philosophical Free will.

Creative Evolution

More specifically, Bergson’s project in Creative Evolution is to offer a philosophy capable of accounting both for the continuity of all living beings—as creatures—and for the discontinuity implied in the evolutionary quality of this creation.[36] His argument consists of four main steps. First, is that the original common impulse which explains the creation of all living species; this is his famous vital impulse (élan vital). Second is the diversity resulting from evolution. If the original impulse is common to all life, then there must also be a principle of divergence and differentiation that explains evolution. Third, the two main diverging tendencies that account for evolution can ultimately be identified as instinct on the one hand and intelligence on the other. Human knowledge results from the form and the structure of intelligence. Intelligence consists precisely in an analytic, external, hence essentially practical and spatialized approach to the world. Unlike instinct, human intelligence is therefore unable to attain to the essence of life in its duration. The paradoxical situation of humanity (the only species that wants to know life is also the only one that cannot do so) must therefore be overcome. Fourth is the effort of intuition what allows us to place ourselves back within the original creative impulse so as to overcome the numerous obstacles that stand in the way of true knowledge.[37]

The Creative Evolution against traditional mechanistic cosmology, in particular is an attempt to explain whole universe as the evolutionary development of creative Elan Vital.  The world is nothing than the dynamism of Elan Vital. This dynamism by creative evolution is the eternal, has no end.

Time

Henri Bergson’s discovered his theory of Duration, when he was trying to improve the inadequacies of Herbert Spencer’s mechanistic philosophy[38]. Bergson, criticizing the traditional assumption of “Time as Succession” argues that such explanation is incapable to express the flow of Time. For Bergson, Time is not a ‘succession’ rather it is ‘Duration‘. “Duration is the continuous progress of past which grows into the future and which swells as it advances.”[39] “It has one foot in the past another in the future”.[40] Time is nothing but a continuous flow of Elan Vital through Creative Evolution. What Bergson trying to say is that event in Creative Evolution cannot be measured mathematically, that is just apprehensible as ‘Duration’.  

‘Time as Succession’ is the external aspect of Time which can define only the rational aspect of world whereas apart this external aspect, we have our inner aspect which does not flow as succession of one point to another. Motion of inner aspect flow as Duration which can be felt at Love, deep melancholy and so on[41].  He says “analysis operates always on the immobile, whilst intuition places itself in mobility or, what comes to the same thing, in duration”[42]. Thus, time in real sense is graspable only through intuition. 

Free Will

Darwin proposed the evolution in a very mechanistic manner. Darwin’s theory of evolution is limited only upon the evolution of animals whereas Bergson’s theory is broad which includes material evolution too. Darwinian Theory argued that only that survives which wins the struggle for existence. Darwin postulates some mechanical process like Theory of Natural selection, Struggle for existence, survival of fitness and so on. Herbert Spencer continued Darwinian mechanistic explanation. Darwin’s and Spencer’s account of world is deterministic. Apart this, so called spiritualist accounts world as determined by God. They describes world as following certain teleology towards final end. Bergson criticizes all this kind of determinism. According to him, evolution in every Duration is free. Rejection of serial time (time as succession) is sufficient to refute determinism because in serial time, future is determined effect of past in one direction whereas for Bergson, evolution is like the bomb explosion in multiple direction.[43] Evolution process has no end, Elan Vital acts freely in multiple directions.

Comparative Metaphysics: Iqbal and Bergson

Bergson and Iqbal both rejected the mechanistic view of causality. For them creativity is the free act. Their whole metaphysics based on this view.  But Iqbal does not reject the teleological explanation whereas Bergson’s rejection of finalism rejects teleological explanation of universe too. Iqbal accepts teleological explanation in so far as that does not leads to fatalism. Both of them promulgate a pluralistic principle (i.e. Ego and Elan Vital). But for Iqbal, God as a Supreme Ego cannot be accounted as Pluralism. However, his explanation of world as totality of Ego or the Ego of egos leads him to be a pluralist. This Plurality of ultimate stuff leads to the variation and diversity in world. For both of them, the Ultimate stuff has infinite creativity. Desire of Iqbal’s ego and Instinct of Bergson’s Elan Vital is the fundamental attribute which directs towards creation.

For Bergson and Iqbal both, “Pure Duration is the matrix of the whole Universe”[44]. Both of them rejects the Newton’s view of Absolute Time, McTaggart’s view on unreality of Time, Nietzsche’s view on Cyclic Time. Time as Duration is knowable by Intuition. Time is creative motion. Every Duration has Unique Creation. But one difference between them is that Bergson completely rejects the teleology of Time whereas Iqbal accepts the teleology.

Another similarity found in Bergon’s and Iqbal’s Philosophy is the concept of Free Will.Free will in their philosophy based on the rejection of mechanistic explanation of life world. Bergson rejects the so called finalism and Iqbal rejects the so called fatalism of Quran and they provide free will to their elan vital and ego respectively.Our action is the results of our free will hence doer is responsible for his all activities.

Concluding Remarks

Analogy of Revolt:

Iqbal revolts against the Islamic consideration of Man as completely surrendered being. He demonstrates the centrality of Man in Islamic thought. He argued that followers of Islam instead of providing centrality to man, concentrated on some other futile metaphysical question on account of which even the centrality of man was thrown in the background and the metaphysical nature of man remained unclear. Providing centrality to the man is the essential revolution of Iqbal against traditional Islamic thought. Explaining self as Ego principle and rejecting the fatalism, he provided free will to the man, not only to the God. Similarly, explaining the ultimate stuff as Elan Vital, Bergson provided centrality to the life force. Viewing Mind-Body as evolution of Elan Vital, he provided complete free will to the human self instead of traditional mechanistic and teleological explanation of life.  In Philosophy, their revolution can be viewed as against the Kantian Agnosticism. Both of them explained that which was Agnostic for Kant. In other word, their revolution with traditional philosophy can be said as the orientation towards life instead of solid wisdom.

Conclusion

As Iqbal belongs to the synthetic tradition of Indian Philosophy, we can, precisely, claim he is successful in the synthesizing of both East-West Philosophical Tradition. Mixing Sufism with Bergsonian Intuition gives Iqbal’s notion of Intuition. According to both philosophers, all Metaphysical and Religious ideas are knowable in a very simpler way by Intuition. Mixing Quranic idea of self (i.e. creative direction of God) with Bergson’s Elan Vital gives Iqbal’s intuitively knowable ego principle. Iqbal explained ego taking the Bergson’s notion of instinct. Adding desire (IInstinct) to the essence of ego leads to the free act of ego and further to the capacity of man being perfect. Hence Iqbal’s endeavor to revive the Islamic thought satisfies because of revitalizing the Individual’s level with Bergson’s Life-force. Bergson’s anti-mechanistic explanation of cosmology on the basis of life force had great influence upon the iqbal’s Religious mission of resurrecting man’s position in Islamic thought. Hence Iqbal revolt against traditional Islamic thought synthesizing Quranic idea with his contemporary Western philosophical realm capturing the heart of Bersonian Philosophy.  Hence both are comparable.

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[1] Realistic Idealism means Epistemic Realism as per knower-known relationship and Metaphysical Idealism as per ultimate substance.

[2] लाल, वसन्तकुमार,  समकालिन पाश्चात्य दर्शन, मोतिलाल बनारसीदास, चतुर्थ संशोधित संस्करण, दिल्ली, 2005,पृष्ठ २, १०४

[3] Durrant, Will, The Story of Philosophy, TIME INC., New York (Publisher: Jerome s. Hardy), 1962, page 418

[4] Iqbal, Mohammad. Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011, page 1

[5] Ibid.

[6] Lal, Basanta Kumar, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, page 305

[7] Hassan, Riffat, The Meaning and role of Intuition in Iqbal’s Philosophy

[8] Ibid

[9] Dr. Begum, Shagufta, Iqbal’s Epistemology, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol.3, No.12, Center for Promoting Ideas, USA, June 2013,   Page 173

[10] मिश्र, जगदीशचन्द्र, भरतीय दर्शन, चौखम्बा सुरभारती प्रकाशन, वाराणसी, प्रथम संस्करण २०१५, पृष्ठ ७०२, ७०३, ७०४

[11] Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, Henry Bergson, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016

[12] लाल, वसन्तकुमार, समकालिन पाश्चात्य दर्शन, मोतिलाल बनारसीदास, चतुर्थ संशोधित संस्करण, दिल्ली, 2005, पृष्ठ १३१

[13] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[14] Ibid

[15] Iqbal, Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam

[16] Bergson, Henry, Creative Evolution

[17] श्रीवास्तव, जगदीश सहाय, अर्वाचिन दर्शनका वैज्ञानिक इतिहास, प्रथम संस्करण, किताब महल, इलाहबाद, 1983, पृष्ठ 177

[18] Hassan, Riffat,  Iqbal’s “Mard-e-Mo’min” and Nietzsche’s Influence, Pakistan Times, Lahore, April 18, 1969

[19] Iqbal, Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011, page 79

[20] Lal, Basanta Kumar, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 2^nd  Edition, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1978,page 315

[21] Iqbal, Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011, page 79

[22] Lal, Basanta Kumar, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 2^nd  Edition, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1978,page 314

[23]Ibid

[24] Lal, Basanta Kumar, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 2^nd  Edition, Motilal Banarasidas , Delhi, 1978, page 312 and 318

[25] Hassan, Riffat, The Concept of Time in Iqbal’s Thought, Journal of the Regional Cultural Institute, Tehran, Vol. VI, Nos. 3 and 4, 1973

[26] Ibid

[27] Ibid

[28] Iqbal, Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011, page 79

[29] Iqbal, Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011, page 79

[30] Ibid, page 79

[31] Ibid, page 86 and 87

[32] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[33] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[34] Bergson, Henry, Creative Evolution

[35] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[36] Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, Henry Bergson, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016

[37] Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, Henry Bergson, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016

[38] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[39] Bergson, Henry, Creative Evolution, page 5

[40] Bergson, Henry, Matter and Memory, Dover Publication,Page 4

[41] Bergson, Henry, Time and Free Will, page 129

[42] Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme

[43] Bergson, Henry, Creative Evolution, Page 82

[44] Hassan, Riffat, The Concept of Time in Iqbal’s Thought, Journal of the Regional Cultural Institute, Tehran, Vol. VI, Nos. 3 and 4, 1973

Bibliography

Primary References

1. Bergson, Henry, Creative Evolution, (A. Mitchel Tr.) Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc. New York, 1911
2. Bergson, Henry, Time and Free Will, (F.C. Pagson Tr.) The MacMilan Co. New York, 1913
3. Bergson, Henry, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T.E. Hulme
4. Bergson, Henry, Matter and Memory, Dover Publication, 2004
5. Iqbal Mohammad, Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, (Editor:M. Suheyl Umar), Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2011

Secondary References

1. Dr. Begum, Shagufta, Iqbal’s Epistemology, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol.3, No.12, Center for Promoting Ideas, USA, June 2013
2. Durant, Will, The Story of Philosophy, TIME INC., New York (Publisher: Jerome s. Hardy), 1962, page (from 417-433)
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